Mammals (10)
(Odocoileus virginianus)
White-tailed deer have played a very important role in the history of our country. A major part of Meriwether Lewi’s job was to observe and descried the flora and fauna of the Northwest. He had no reason to write about the common or fallow deer of the East Coast, except for eusing it for comparison purposes, he gave it a very good picture overall. The term “white-tail” occurred in the expedition’s journals only once, when Clark, on June 5, 1805, reported that he “Saw great numbers of Elk & white tail deer.” He was merely using it as a descriptor, not as a name. It didn’t come into popular usage until sometime in the 1860s.
They were used extensively by Native Americans for both food and clothing and also by the early settlers.
White-tailed deer are the smallest of the three members of the deer family found in North America, the others being elk and moose.
The white-tailed deer is the oldest species of deer in the world today, its first appearance dating back to the Pliocene, perhaps 3.5 million years ago. There are now 38 subspecies of the white tail occupying a range that extends from the jungles of northern South America to the fringes of Canada’s boreal forests, and from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Northwest.
“White-tailed” refers to the distinctive white tail that when raised provides a flash of white signaling other deer when danger is near. They are graceful and swift runners that can reach up to 35 mph. Male deer are called “bucks”, females “does”, and baby deer “fawn”. They live in female-led family groups of up to 25 deer and can live as long as 10 years or more. Buck deer are primarily solitary animals except during the breeding season (also called the “rut”).
They have two seasonal coats. In the spring/summer their coat is reddish tan, relatively short, with thin and wiry hair. The winter coat is grayish or bluish tan with heavy, long hairs with a thick coat. White patches are found around the eyes, throat belly, inside of legs and underside of the tail. The fawns have white spots in a reddish-brown background enabling them to blend in with their surroundings. In the later part of the summer the fawn starts to loose it’s spots and they get a grayish coat. They are active around the clock, but less so during the daylight hours. They are usually on the move during the dawn and dusk. Deer have been recorded leaping heights of as much as eight (8) feet to clear a fence or barrier. We have identified at least 13 different sounds that they make for various activities and behaviors. Antlers play an important role in deer society. Rubbing the antlers on trees marks territories and sparring matches.
White-tailed deer prefer an area with diverse food and cover types. The perfect habitat would include a mixture of forest, brushland, cropland and fields. They eat a variety of items; some of the items are: wild crabapple, corn, sumac, Japanese honeysuckle, grasses, greenbriar, clover soybeans, jewelweed, acorns, and not limited to dogwoods.
When born male fawns weigh about 4-14 pounds and femails 3-8 pounds. They are born with their eyes open and can walk within 1-2 hours. Fawns nurse 2-3 times a day. They come out of hiding to nurse then go back into hiding. At about one month the fawn begins to accompany their mother. They will stay together until the following spring. Female fawns will remain in proximity to their mother their whole life. The bucks are forced to leave in the fall, if they haven’t already.
(Lutra Canadensis)
The North American river otter is the most numerous of the otter species. Otters are found throughout nearly all of Canada, Alaska and the continental United States with the exception of arctic regions and a small portion of the southwest United States. As polluted waterways have become cleaner, otters have returned.
Otters are considered a semi-aquatic mammal. They are mostly seen in or near the water but are quite capable of overland travel, if the spirit moves them.
They are members of the weasel family, the “Mustelidas”. The first recognizable aquatic otter fossil dates to 30 million years ago. A species known as “Pakalutra jaegeri” lived in Europe 25 million years ago and may be the ancestor to the modern river otter. My rehabilitation work with the river otter has led me to describe them as trying to control the energizer bunny with the intelligence of a two year old, the strength of an ox, the teeth of a piranha and the temperament of a killer bee. Working with them is both challenging and rewarding.
The typical adult weighs between 11 and 22 pounds, and can measure 3 to 4 feet in length. They stand 10” at the shoulder. They have long, supple bodies that are extremely muscular. They are able to twist, turn, roll and dive effortlessly through the water. The eyes have a clear, third eyelid, nictating membrane, which covers the eye when swimming.
The otter’s feet are strong, well-webbed, and clawed. Otters can reach speeds of 7 mph under water and can dive to depths of 35 feet or more. They are capable of holding their breath 3 to 8 minutes. On land, they are capable of running up to 18 mph. The ears are small and lie flat against the head. The tail is furred and is long and rudder-like.
The fur is velvety in feel and thick. The color ranges from nearly black to reddish or grayish brown. Belly fur is lighter, usually silvery or grayish brown. The throat and cheeks are silvery to yellowish gray but are not clearly distinguished. The nose is diamond shaped.
The long whiskers are used to detect prey in the substrate. Prey is eaten immediately after capture. River otters are extremely agile and highly intelligent. They are one of the few animals that seem to spend much of their time playing. They delight in making a game of everything. They will chase after a pebble or shell or each other for hours. They make a game of sliding down a slope and belly flopping in the water.
Otters often share territory with beavers. They are found in a variety of freshwater habitats, including streams, rivers, lakes, marshes and ponds. Otter dens are often dug into banks, but they will also use an old beaver lodge, muskrat den, or hollow log. They are most active at night. Otters will feed on fish, snakes, turtles, frogs, crayfish and almost anything they can catch. Research shows that otters feed on slow-moving fish such as suckers and catfish. They tend to eat the “trash” fish that compete with the more economically beneficial fish. Mating takes place shortly after the birth of pups, but otters have delayed implantation, allowing actual gestation to begin months later. Females give birth to 2-4 pups in early spring. They are born blind and toothless. The pups are helpless the first two months of life and remain in the den. Otter pups are weaned between 3 and 4 months. When the otter pups are weaned, father sometimes joins the female to help raise the pups. Mother begins swimming lessons after the pups are 2 months old. The average life span of river otters in the wild is 10-20 years. Captive otters have reached an age of 23.
River otters are usually found alone or in pairs, but will sometimes socialize in larger groups. “Play” activities are used to strengthen social bonds, practice hunting techniques, and to scent mark. They have boundless energy and an extremely high metabolism which requires them to eat a great deal. Their home ranges are large and they may be up to 20 square miles. Individual males may travel 25 miles in a week patrolling the borders of their range and scent marking.
River otters communicate through a wide range of activities and sounds. They vocalize with whistles, growls, grunts, chuckles, chirps and screams.
They scent mark by urinating/defecating within their home range. The scent glands, located at the base of the tail produce a strong, musky odor.
River otters have no real predators. Other predators find them difficult to catch, due in part to their agility in the water. Otters are fierce fighters, but will occasionally fall prey to coyotes. Today, all otter species are considered threatened. Water pollution and excessive fur trapping are their biggest threats.
River otters pose little threat to humans or structures.
(Procyon Lotor)
Raccoons are found throughout the continental United States. The North American raccoon fossil evidence dates its existence to two million years ago. The name “procyon” is from a Greek word meaning dog and the “lotor” from the latin word meaning “the washer”. The name raccoon is derived from the Algonquin Indian word “arakinem” meaning “he scratches with his hands”. The back mask and ringed tail makes the raccoon distinctive among the other mammals of North America. The northern raccoons tend to have darker fur color than their southern cousins. The raccoons living in salt water marshes tend to have a redder shade to their fur. Adult weights average 12 to 18 pounds but a top weight of 30 pounds is possible.
A raccoon’s feet are naked on the soles with five toes. Its sense of touch is acute. The front paws are believed to be four times as sensitive as the back feet. They have well developed dexterity and are able to open many different types of containers. The “washing” behavior of a raccoon more accurately reflects a need to tactually experience things. The cat-like claws make the raccoon an excellent climber.
Both senses of hearing and vision are keen. Their vision is adapted to its nocturnal activities. They are most likely color blind and reflect light as a greenish glow.
Raccoon language ranges from the chirring, trilling and purring of the young to the scream, snarls and growls of the adult.
Raccoons are good swimmers, but avoid deep water unless necessary to escape danger.
Raccoons are very curious. Young raccoons pick up things constantly and put them in their mouths. They actively learn what is edible. Due to their intelligence and adaptability, they are found in a wide variety of habitats in rural and urban areas.
They are at least as intelligent as dogs and cats. They prefer mature woodlands. Urban areas provide both natural foods and abundant cast offs from human tables. Shelter can be found in uncapped chimneys, attics, under porches and yard buildings. Cities provide extensive travel corridors for the clever raccoon willing to use the dry storm drains.
In the spring, a pregnant female will select a birthing den only days before the babies arrive. Liter size ranges from two to seven. The babies are called cubs. They will remain with their mother until fall. Raccoons are not territorial. They tolerate each other by avoidance. Occasionally cubs will remain with their mother for the winter but most often it is the cubs that will den together for the first winter. The average life span of a raccoon is 7 years.
A raccoons diet varies. They will eat fruits, vegetables, acorns, earthworms, small mammals, such as mice, birds, eggs and amphibians . Those living near water will eat fish and aquatic animals. They are not regarded as effective or efficient hunters. Their fondness for grapes and sweet corn sometimes leads to conflicts with humans. Raccoons will add 30% to their body weight before winter. They do not hibernate, so the fat reserves will benefit their survival. On extremely cold days or bad weather they will remain in a state of topor for several days.
The raccoon is one of four animals, including bat, fox and skunk, that are considered to be a primary carrier of rabies in the United States. Raccoon rabies was documented in Virginia and West Virginia for the first time in 1977, after a group of wild raccoons were brought from Florida to repopulate a hunting area. Exposure to rabies is defined as an animal bite, scratch or contamination of mucous membranes or unintact skin by saliva or nervous tissue. The incubation period can range from 9 days to over one year. This disease can have a variety of signs. The “furious” form of the disease will cause affected animals to attack non-prey species, such as, pets, people and livestock. The “dumb” form will cause an animal to have a staring expression and appear very lethargic. Paralysis and convulsions can occur in either form of the disease. Raccoons can also carry a round worm called “baylisascaris procyonis” that can infect humans if eggs are ingested or inhaled from dry feces.
(reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
(Didelphis Virginia)
The Virginia Opossum is literally a living fossil. Its basic skeleton has remained unchanged for the last 90 million years. Its ancestors lived in the time of dinosaurs. The present day possum evolved into its present form around 75,000 years ago. The word opossum comes from the Algonquian Indian word “apasum”, which means “white mammal”. In 1612, Captain John Smith sent word to England that, “An opossum hat a head like a swine, and a tail like a rat and the Bignes of a cat”.
The opossum is a unique species among our North American mammals. It is the only marsupial. Females have a pouch or “marsuprin”. It is found in most of the lower 48 states, as well as the southern part of some Canadian provinces. It is a medium- sized animal. The average adult weighs between 12 and 13 pounds. They continue to grow throughout their short life. The fur color ranges from white to almost black, but usually appears gray. Long guard hairs give the fur a coarse appearance. The ears and tail have no hair. The possum’s tail is its most notable feature. It is a myth that they hang by their tail. They will wrap their prehensile tail around branches to brace themselves or steady their position. They will carry nesting material with their tail, curling it around the matter they wish to carry. They are able to grasp branches and food easily due to the unique structure of their feet. Four of their toes have sharp claws, but the fifth, the big toe, lacks a nail and is opposable, like the human thumb. This allows the opossum to have extreme dexterity.The opossum has a relatively small brain for its size but this has not inhibited its ability to adapt to a variety of environments and climates. They catch on quickly to a reliable food source. They have a well developed sense of smell, which aids in food location. The opossum is a true omnivore. They will eat virtually everything. Their diet encompasses an extraordinarily diverse range of items. They will eat fruit, bird’s eggs, mice, insects, slug, snails, earthworms, nuts, mushrooms, grain crops, snakes, garbage, lizards and carrion. Raids to chicken houses and gardens are rare. Young opossums do not have to be taught to find food. The sight of live, moving food excites them to capture, kill and eat. They are nocturnal, solitary scavengers that do not hibernate.
For its size , the opossum is the shortest- lived mammal. Other mammals its size frequently live for 10 years or more. Opossums almost never live more than 2 years. Most fail to reach the age of two. The opossum does have natural enemies but the major cause of possum mortality is the automobile, which may be due in part to the possum’s attraction to road kill. The opossum is still hunted for its meat and fur. Owls, snakes, coyotes and dogs also take their toll.
The opossum is best known for “playing possum”. When a possum is threatened, it will first show it’s teeth and hiss similar to an angry cat. If that fails to scare off the predator, the possum may run away or climb a tree. As a last resort, the possum will “play possum”. It will curl up in a trancelike state, body limp, eyes open and sometimes tongue hanging out. It is not a conscious act of pretending but is a genetically programmed response. Even after the threat has passed, the possum may remain in this state for minutes up to hours.
The survival of the opossum may be due in part to their reproduction. The female will often raise two litters in a year. Each litter may contain a dozen babies. Mothers often succeed in raising half of them. Females are able to reproduce as early as age 6 months. The combination of early reproduction and large litters has insured the possums survival. As with all marsupials, possum young are born in the embryonic state. The newborns are about the size of a honey bee. An entire litter may fit in a tablespoon. After birth, they must crawl up into the mother’s pouch, where they will remain and nurse for about 2 months. This is an extremely important evolutionary development. The mother never has to return to a den to feed her young. She can continue her wandering lifestyle to find food and sleep where she likes.
Between two and three months, the young possums will emerge from the pouch. For a few days, they will remain in a den while mother searches for food. After a few days they begin to wander with mother or ride on her back. As their fifty teeth develop, they will wean from their mothers , begin to eat the diverse diet of the possum and become the solitary scavenger they are meant to be.
The American Mink (mustela vision) is a member of the family of animals known as mustelids. The mustelid family is known for their feistiness and are often described as fearless. The common name for mink comes from the Swedish word maenk.
Mink are born both curious and secretive. They are usually shy but can be very bold when their curiosity has been aroused. They are solitary with the exception of mating season.
The American mink shares the common characteristic of all mustelids: anal musk glands that are used for territory marking and defense. As members of the weasel family, their bodies are long and slender with long necks and short legs. Mink range in size from 12 to 17 inches in length. Males are larger than females. Females range in weight from 1 ¼ to 2 pounds. Males range in weight from 1 ½ to 3 pounds.
The fur is a rich dark brown to almost black with a white chin patch and throat. Sometimes they have small white spots on their belly. The fur is soft and thick with oily guard hairs that waterproof the coat. A mink’s pelt has a thick under-fur for insulation and buoyancy. The tail is fully furred and slightly bushy. The eyes appear black and are beady in appearance. They have fair eyesight and must rely on their sense of smell to locate prey. A mink’s ears are short, barely extending above its fur. The feet have five toes which are slightly webbed, making mink excellent swimmers. They use all four feet when swimming and are able to dive as deep as 16 feet. They are capable of swimming underwater distances of 50 feet. Mink can reach a top surface swimming speed of 1 to 1 ½ miles per hour. On land, they usually walk or take low bounds covering a distance of between 10-24 inches with each bound. They are capable of running 7-8 miles per hour.
They will often rear up on their hind legs to get a better view of their surroundings, and will sometimes climb trees to avoid predators. They will spray a foul smelling liquid when frightened and may squeal, snarl, or hiss. They can make a purring sound when happy and will greet with a bark.
Mating takes place between January and March. Females may breed their first year. The average life span is one year but they may live as long as 4 years. Litters of 2-6 are born blind, naked and helpless. Eyes open around 212-25 days.
Abandoned burrows dug by muskrat are a favorite place to rest and raise their young. They will also use cavities in brush and rock piles, logjams, and the exposed roots of trees. A den can have several entrances, and includes a nest chamber about 1 foot in diameter. The female usually lines this chamber with grass, leaves, fur or feathers. Mother begins to wean at 5 weeks by bringing home food. Young mink have a surplus of skin at the back of the neck, which protects them from mother’s sharp teeth when she picks them up. By 8 weeks, the weaning process is over and the young mink begin traveling with their mother on hunting trips. Young mink are playful and begin to play fight. They will travel in single file and will mimic mother’s behaviors. They remain with their mother until the end of summer. As fall approaches, the young mink will leave to establish their own territory. The larger males disperse first and the females may not disperse until the following spring. The young mink may establish territory as far away as ten miles. By the age of ten months they are able to mate. Females reach their full growth by the following fall but males continue to grow into their second year.
Mink prefer a habitat beside streams and lakes. They are chiefly nocturnal and very secretive. They are rarely seen by humans and are solitary except for family groups of mothers and young. Mink are almost as dependent on access to water as the river otter. The mink will have a narrow territory not more than 150-300 feet from a lake , stream, marsh or river bank. A permanent water source, reliable amount of prey and adequate shoreline vegetation , such as cattails, are important to a mink’s choice of habitat. A male mink travels widely and may occupy as much as 2.5 miles of stream habitat or 2500 acres in wetland habitat. An adult female does not travel as far as the male. Her territory covers about 1 mile of stream habitat and 40 acres of wetland habitat. Males defend their territory against other males. A male may use several different dens within its range. The female usually only has one or two dens and is the only one to use them. Juveniles that have recently left the family group often use several dens until they establish their own territory. There is usually 1 mink for each 50 acres of wetlands and 3-4 mink for each mile of stream habitat, when food is ample. Wild mink are less common than 50 years ago due to habitat loss caused by development, stream channelization and drainage of wetlands. Mink mark their territory and advertise their presence by depositing their droppings and leaving its scent in prominent spots, such as rocks or logs. Mink are active year round, remaining in the den only during severe winter weather.
Despite their size, mink are vicious predators. The mink is extremely aggressive and capable of attacking and killing animals much larger than itself. They are seldom if ever interested in plant food. They feed primarily on birds, eggs, frogs, crayfish, and fish. They seldom eat insects or carrion. The males, being larger in size, will also prey on rabbits, large birds, and muskrat. Prey are usually killed and taken to the den to eat. Mink perform a valuable service to man by controlling the small rodent population. It will cache food for later if the prey is larger than it can eat at one time.
Mink are preyed on by owls, fox, coyotes, bob cats and domestic dogs and cats. Other reasons for mortality include fighting with other mink, starvation of dispersing juveniles and trapping.
Mink are excellent environmental indicators. Wild mink are subject to a bio-accumulation of dangerous chemicals, such as mercury, because they are at the top of the aquatic food chain. The Illinois Environmental Protection Agency found that the study of mink caught by trappers, was an important addition to water quality tests. The water samples did not always provide a complete picture of how compounds accumulate through the food chain or affect wildlife when they interact with each other in an animal’s body. Through this study, people were warned not to consume fish in certain areas due to the high levels of mercury found in the mink’s system. Mink are also susceptible to Aleutian mink disease virus, a form of the parvovirus.
The long tail weasel (mustela frenata) belongs to the Mustelidae family and the order Carnivora. Fossils of weasel ancestors are at least 40 million years old. The long tail weasel is solitary and secretive in nature and is found throughout most of the continental United States with the exception of Alaska. The long tail weasel requires a constant supply of drinking water.
Unlike most other predatory animals, weasels are active both day and night. Evidence suggests that they are better suited to hunting during the day, especially twilight. They are efficient predators and active year round. A weasel’s eyes have a reflective layer of tissue called the tapetum lucidum behind the retina to improve night vision. In the tracks of a weasel, the hind feet and front feet are superimposed . As a result, the tracks look like they were made by two feet instead of four. They have furred foot pads which allow for quickly running over snow. Weasels, like all mustelids, produce a pungent odor called “musk”. When irritated they will discharge their musk as a defense strategy. The long tail weasel has a long, slender body and neck, short legs and a tail, that measures 40-70% of its body length. The upper body fur is brown and the under parts are yellowish white. The long tail weasel has brown feet in summer, where the other members of the weasel family have white feet. The mature long tail weasel has a black tip at the end of the tail. A study was done by a researcher named Roger Powell on the purpose of the black tip. In this study, he trained captive hawks to capture fake weasels. The hawks repeated focused on trying to capture the black tip, with little success. When the fake weasels were replaced with like weasels without the black tip, the hawks were more successful by attacking the body. Powell, concluded that the black tip is a natural diversion to elude predators.
Adult males weigh 7 ½ to 12 ounces and females usually weigh 3 ¼ to 7 ½ ounces. Adult males are 12 ½ to 20 inches in length, with a tail length possible of 6 inches. Females are by contrast only 10-16 1/8 inches in length and maximum tail lengths of 5 ½ inches.
Long tail weasels feed primarily on insects and small rodents, such as voles, moles and mice They may consume up to 4 rodents per day.. However, their diet may also include bird and birds eggs. As predators, they play an important role in the ecosystem. They have a high metabolic rate, which must be constantly sustained. They have a heart rate in the hundreds of beats per minute. It takes a lot of fuel to stoke its hyperactive energy level. A weasel consumes its weight in food every day. It will eat 5 to 10 times daily. This need for constant food has contributed to the notion of them as cold blooded killers They are capable of killing prey up 5 times their size, such as muskrats, water fowl, squirrels and cottontail rabbits. A weasel can run carrying prey twice its own weight. In relation to body size, a weasel is stronger than a lion, which is unable to run with prey half its body weight. They hunt by moving around the area where the prey live. Their thin, small body allows them to squeeze into the tunnels of small rodents. They use all their senses to hunt. They kill their prey by biting the neck at the base if the head. They usually kill prey instantly and eat it over several hours. The leftovers are cached in a nearby burrow. If a nest is discovered, a weasel will kill all the animals present, cache them and return to eat them gradually. This is known as “surplus killing”, a trait that has given the weasel its nasty reputation. It’s actions have nothing to do with taking pleasure in killing but with evolutionary programming that has enable the species to survive.
The long tail weasel has a home range of 30 to 40 acres. Males have larger ranges than females and do not overlap with other males. Males tend to circulate through their territory, visiting one hunting spot after another. One study found that the male long tail weasels traveled about 230 yards per night in comparison to the female’s 115 yards per night. Dens are usually in a hollow tree or log or some protected place. They will line the den with grass, leaves, fur or feathers.
Weasels will occupy a wide variety of habitats including woodlands, brushy areas and borders between woodlands and fields. The density of a population will depend on the season and food availability.
Long tail weasels mate in late summer mostly from July through August. They do not give birth until the next April or May. Average litters consist of 6 young, but 9 are possible. The young are born blind and are covered with a fine whitish fur. Their eyes open at 5 weeks. The mother feeds only milk at first but will introduce prey before the eyes open. They mature rapidly and at 3 months of age the females are fully grown. They are mature at the age of one.
Due to their secretive nature, very little is known about their social and family life. They are believed to have a wild lifespan of 3 to 5 years. Weasels are preyed upon by snakes, owls, hawks, foxes and occasionally domestic cats.(reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
Sciurus Carolineses
Squirrels evolved between fifty- four and fifty- seven million years ago. The name “sciurus” is derived from a Greek word meaning “shade Tail”. They are a member of the rodent family of mammals. The word rodent is derived from the Latin word “rodere”, meaning “to gnaw”. During the micene era the ancestor of the squirrel evolved. Roughly 25 million years ago, squirrels diversified into tree and ground dwelling species. The specific origin of the gray squirrel is unknown. The fossilized predecestors of squirrels are classified as “paramyids”, the earliest form of rodent. This species varied in size from a few inches to beaver sized. Modern beavers are thought to be the nearest living relative to these primitive mammals.
Almost every activity of the modern gray squirrel involves food. Adult gray squirrels consume roughly one and a half pounds of nuts and seeds a week. Natural foods include a variety of seeds, nuts, fruit, buds, leaves, bark, and fungi. Favorite nuts include hickory, pecan, black walnut and acorns. Favorite seeds include pine, corn, black gum fruits, sugar maple, dogwood fruits, wild cherry and beechnut. Gray squirrels will eat between 30 and 60 different plants. They are omnivores. They will occasionally eat bird eggs, earthworms and beetles. They will also eat soil to obtain minerals. They will strip bark on a tree to sharpen their teeth and obtain nutrients from the sappy tissue beneath the bark. Their diet may also include mushrooms , the bones of dead animals and deer antlers. They require water at least twice a day. In winter, they will eat the snow to obtain water. Gray squirrels are scatter hoarders. They bury small amounts of food in different locations. They are capable of burying 25 nuts per hour. Experiments have shown that they use their highly developed sense of smell to locate their buried treasures. In spring, swelling buds and the flowers of the red and sugar maple are eaten. Summer food will include berries, apples, corn and other grains.
Squirrels are most active at dawn and in the late afternoon. Wind discourages movement. Squirrels are somewhat gregarious, tolerating each other in small groups when food is plentiful. Squirrels are active year round. They may stay in their den for several days during storms or severe winter weather. In winter, several immature squirrels may share the same nest.
Squirrels use two kinds of nests: tree dens and leaf nests called dreys. Leaf nests are usually summer nests. They will be built in the top fork of a tree or in the crotch of a limb neat the trunk. A single entrance usually faces the main trunk or a nearby limb. The number of active nests per squirrel is thought to be about three, depending on the density of squirrels in the area. Nest sites are periodically changed to keep parasites under control. Most squirrels are capable of constructing a nest in one day. Additional material is added from time to time. The diameter of the interior nest is usually 6 to 8 inches.
Gray squirrels have two litters a year. The first is early spring and the second is in the fall. The litter usually consists of 3 to 5 babies. They are born pink, blind and hairless. The first hair to develop is the whiskers. Squirrels grow slowly. They are dependent on their mother for six weeks. They open their eyes around 5 weeks and have their front incisors, but will not have their grinding teeth until around the sixth week. They may continue to nurse until the 12th week. The first litter will venture from the nest around the first week of May. The second litter will become active in August. Almost as soon as young squirrels leave the nest, they begin to bury nuts. Squirrel mothers are extremely protective of their young. They do not mate for life like their cousin the beaver. Young squirrels are not automatically accepted in a territory. They must establish their position. Squirrel home ranges vary from one to seven acres. Males have a larger territory than females. They will travel in rows of trees which they have marked with scent. Squirrels are quick and nimble. They are capable of running, climbing and jumping among the branches of the highest trees. They have extremely powerful back legs and can easily jump 6 feet. They are capable of climbing almost every surface with the exception of glass. They are capable of running 19 miles per hour. They are also able to swim up to one mile.
The life expectancy of a gray squirrel is 10 years but the average life span is 18 months. An old squirrel would be 4 years old. An estimated 15 to 25 percent of young squirrels survive their first year. After the first year there is a 50 to 70 percent survival rate. About 1 percent of squirrels in a given year will survive longer than 5 years.
Natural predators include man, hawks, owls, fox, bobcats and raccoons. The greatest cause of death for squirrels is due to a combination of lack of food, secondary infection from parasites and effects of cold weather.
Squirrel language includes a vocabulary of slow warning barks, scolding, teasing and playful “clucks”. When alarmed, jerky tail movements will accompany its call. Squirrels use their calls and tail movements to warn other squirrels of danger, as well as, to intimidate their adversaries. The tail is also used for shade in the summer and a blanket in winter. The tail is used for balance when climbing and jumping.
A gray squirrel’s teeth are its most important tool. Their sharp incisors enable them to gnaw through the outside of nuts, as well as wood and plastic. The incisors will grow about 6 inches in a year and must be constantly worn down by eating or chewing.
Squirrels have very acute senses. Their hearing enables them to be aware of any changes in their environment. They have powerful vision and a wide field of vision due to the placement of their eyes on the side of the head. It is believed they are able to distinguish color, with the exception of red and green. They are able to see fine detail in vertical objects. It is believed that a gray squirrel is able to recognize another at 50 feet away. They are able to see object movement twice as fast as the human eye.
The squirrel’s fur is its first defense against the cold. It is a mixture of brown, grey and yellow on top with gray and white underneath. The range of fur color may run from gray to silver-gray to black. Extra sensitive hairs called “vibrissae” form the whiskers. The whiskers give them accurate information on the size of an opening they wish to enter. Baby squirrels are born with these facial hairs, which help them find their mother in the nest. The underneath coloring pattern of the tail can provide information on the age of a squirrel. In gray squirrels, juvenile tails have a stripe pattern to the fur. Squirrels that are 16 months and older do not have the striped variation in their tail fur.(reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
The Red Fox (vulpes fulva)
The Gray Fox (urocuon ceneroargenteus)
The Arctic Fox (alopex lagopus)
The Kit Fox (vulpes velox)
There are four types of foxes in North America- the red, the gray, the arctic and the kit. Many of their characteristics are the same, but each has its own interesting differences. The fox is the smallest of the wild dogs of North America. It is one of the most intelligent of the wild animals and is very adaptable.
The most significant feature of a fox is its “brush” or tail, which is extremely important in cold weather. The fox will curl up tightly and cover the nose, paws and legs with the tail. The tail also plays a significant role in fox language to convey messages of dominance, submissiveness, aggression and playfulness. The tail is a third of the fox’s body length. Only the red fox has the white tip.
All foxes have oval- shaped eyes, which differs from the other members of the dog family, which have round eyes. The red fox has vertical pupils that can narrow to a slit, thus reducing the amount of bright sunlight. They also have a reflective membrane which causes the light to pass over the retina twice, greatly improving night vision.
The fox’s vibrissae (whiskers) are cat-like. They are longer than their wild dog cousins. A fox has a well developed sense of hearing. It can easily hear a mouse rustling under 2 feet of snow or grassy area.
Foxes are capable of leaping 15 feet or more.
Foxes are quick learners and have been known to follow farmers mowers at haying time. They will snap up mice and voles injured or exposed by the haying process. Foxes are preeminent mousers without the aid of the farmer. They will also consume moles and voles. A fox’s wild diet includes grasshoppers, crickets, small birds, squirrels, rabbits, young woodchucks, snakes and lizards. They will occasionally take larger birds, such as pheasants and ducks. They also eat berries and fruit, such as grapes, apples and raspberries. They will eat about 1 pound of meat at a time. Red fox will bury or cache abundant prey in the summer and dig it up when food is scarce.
Foxes have numerous cries, calls and sounds. They do not howl like their wolf cousins. They do have a shrill alarm bark used to warn kits of danger when they are old enough to leave the den.
Foxes are sexually mature by the age of one. Late January is the typical mating season. The gray fox mating ritual is more aggressive than that of the red. Fox mating rituals involve an extended period of chasing that may last up to two weeks. During this time the fox will urinate a strong skunk-like odor. The male and female will separate for a time after mating. The vixen( female) will seek a den just before time for birthing.
A den site can often be detected by worn trails leading to it or by left over bones, feathers, etc. may be spotted. Red foxes prefer making their dens in an environment that allows easy digging. They will also enlarge an existing den of a woodchuck, skunk or another fox. Gray fox will use a ground den but prefer a hollow log or a hollow tree. The gray fox is not tidy about its den area, so you will more likely find bones from fish, birds or rabbits near the den site of the gray fox.
The dog fox ( male) will join the vixen to raise the kits. Kits are usually born in March or April. The typical litter size for all fox species will be 4 kits.
After the vixen gives birth, she will remain in the den for several days. The male will bring food to her during this time. The kit’s eyes do not open for ten days. At the age of 3 to 4 weeks, kits remain near the den opening. At 4 weeks, the kits will begin to fight each other. This is a means of establishing a dominance hierarchy, which determines which kit is fed first by the parents. If food becomes scarce, the dominant kits may be the only ones to survive. Fox kits are vulnerable to a number of predators including eagles, hawks, owls, coyotes and man. At approximately 8 weeks of age, the vixen will force the kits to stop nursing. Around the age of nine weeks,in early fall, young fox are able to feed themselves. They will begin to disperse in the fall after 10 weeks of age.
Foxes are highly territorial. The resident dog fox or vixen will savagely attack an intruder.
The average life span of a wild fox is 5 years. An adult fox’s small size makes it prey for wild cats, coyotes and wolves. Foxes are also affected by rabies, distemper and mange.
The Red Fox is found in every state with the exception of Florida. It is found across Canada to the arctic tundra. It can be found in mountains, forests and farmlands.
Legends about the red fox are many. Some American Indians considered the clever red fox the devil on earth.
The red fox is one of nature’s loveliest and most elegant creatures. The scientific name “vulpes” is the Latin word for fox. The classification “fulva” is from the Latin meaning of reddish- yellowish. It is sometimes called the cat-like fox.
Red fox fossils in North America have been dated back to sometime before the arrival of Columbus.
The red fox stands about 15 inches at the shoulder and weighs between 8 and 14 pounds. Red foxes are not always red. The “silver fox” is the black phase of the red and the “cross fox” is a red fox with dark fur in the shape of a cross down the back and across the shoulders.
Red foxes are stealth hunters. Both the red and gray fox will hunt during the day if they feel secure and have ample hiding places. Reds hunt in the same manner as a small cat. When possible, they will stalk their prey and either pounce on it or run it down with a quick burst of speed. Red foxes are solitary hunters. The red can partially retract its claws, which permits it to stalk quietly, helps the claws stay sharper ,which aids in pinning the prey. Red foxes will prey on anything they can catch and kill.
If chased, a red fox will leap a distance or travel down a stream to put distance between its foot track. They are capable of running 30 miles per hour for several miles, leap obstacles up to six feet in height and easily swim across rivers and streams.
The Gray Fox has a similar range to the red. Its genus name is”urocyon cineroargenteus”. The gray fox tends to avoid areas that have very cold weather. It will inhabit areas of habitat that the red fox avoids. It prefers wooded areas and is not found in the plains states or the western mountain states of the U.S. Sometimes called the “tree fox”, the gray fox will climb up a leaning tree to take a nap in the lower branches. Grays have been seen eating eggs or young nestlings out of their nests. Gray foxes will also climb a tree to escape predators. They will climb on to a leafy branch and flatten themselves to avoid detection. The gray fox is less likely to live near humans. It is also less likely to be seen, as it prefers to move about at night.
The fur of a gray fox is usually a silvery gray but may have also have markings of black, orange and white. The underside will usually be white or light gray. The gray’s tail will be tipped in gray or black. The gray fox weighs less than the red but its body is longer. They typically stand 15 inches at the shoulder and will weigh between 7 and 11 pounds.
The gray fox is the best fighter in the fox clan. A gray fox will stand up to a single dog and easily drive it away.
The Kit Fox (vulpes velox) is the smallest of the North American foxes. It is found in the desert and plains areas of the United States. Its range in the U.S. is limited. It prefers dry, brushy areas. It is sometimes called the “swift fox” due to its habit of darting after things and the speed at which it does this.
The kit fox’s fur is yellowish gray with light colored underbelly. The tail is tipped in black. The adult weight ranges between 4 and 6 pounds and it stands 12 inches at the shoulder. The kit fox family life differs from his cousins as the off-spring remain with the parents for one year before dispersing on their own.
The kit fox prefers a nocturnal life. It spends the day in a burrow and always digs a second entrance for escape. Most foxes will run if surprised, but the kit fox will freeze and lay close to the ground.
A kit fox’s diet will include ground squirrels, prairie dogs, rabbits, snakes, lizards, small birds and insects. It will eat grass and berries if meat is not available.
The kit fox has the longest ears of the foxes and its vocalizations are more like the “chatter” of squirrels than the yelping and yapping of the other fox clan members. The kit fox does not tolerate human presence and requires a desert habitat to survive.
The Arctic Fox (alopex lagopus) looks least like its cousins. It has a shorter nose, short rounded ears, stands less than 12 inches at the shoulder and is the heaviest of the foxes, weighing in at 15 pounds.
Another unusual trait is that it changes its fur color with the seasons. Summer will find it in the brown phase and white during the winter.
It tolerates people more than the other species and will follow hunters and trappers in hopes of an easy meal. Winter feeding for the arctic fox is usually leftovers from a larger animal’s kill or a whale that has beached itself. In summer, its diet includes lemmings and other rodents, ptarmigan, as well as other bird’s eggs.
Their fur is the softest in the fox family. Young are raised in hillside dens in spring in a similar fashion to its fox cousins. By fall, as with other foxes, the young are able to care for themselves.(reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
(Glaucomy volans)
There are two species of flying squirrel in North America. They are the only strictly nocturnal squirrel in the New World. They are shy and infrequently seen but reside in an extensive portion of the continental United States. The southern flying squirrel is the species in the Tidewater area of Virginia.
The most basic fact is that a flying squirrel does not fly. They would be more accurately named the gliding squirrel. A loose fold of skin called the patagium extends from the front ankle to the rear ankle. This fold of skin allows the flying squirrel to glide from tree to tree or limb to limb. It is a unique feature of this species. They are capable of controlling speed and direction with little effort. As they glide, they resemble a square pancake with head, legs and tail. On a familiar glide path, a flier will simply leap out and spread it’s patagium. It uses its powerful back legs to launch itself. The tail serves as a balance, similar to the tail of a kite. The distance a flying squirrel can glide will depend on the slope of the terrain, amount of wind and height the jump began. The distance of the glide will be about 3 feet of distance to each foot of height. Fliers can easily glide 200 feet. When it prepares to land, the squirrel drops its tail and raises its front paws, achieving the same effect as an airplane lowering its flaps. It maneuvers during the glide by moving its legs which thereby tighten or loosen the flaps of skin.
Flying squirrels use a variety of nest sites. A favorite is a tree cavity. Southern flying squirrels will build a summer nest of leaves, usually in hardwood trees , such as oak and hickory. They remain active all year long. In winter, large numbers will share the same cavity. The southern flying squirrel gives birth around April and may have a second litter in August. The litter size varies between 2 and 6 with the average being 3. Females are excellent mothers and will defend their young. Newborn are born naked with only a few whiskers and eyelids and ears are sealed shut. At 4 weeks fur completely covers the body and the upper incisors erupt. Around this time the eyes open. The baby flier is called a pup. At eight weeks the pups are weaned and are gliding and exploring independently.
The adult flying squirrel weighs only 4 ounces and from head to tip of tail is 8 to 10 inches. It is the smallest of the North American squirrels. The fur is extremely soft and fine and varies in color from dark brown to gray with a creamy white underside. The hairs of the tail are flat extend laterally, similar in appearance to a feather.
The flying squirrels eyes are adapted to its nocturnal life style. They are large, very dark and prominent-thus the genus name “glaucomus” . The name stems from the Greek word “glaukos” meaning bluish gray, probably because of the way their eyes reflect light.
They have an excellent sense of hearing. Vocalizations include chirps and twitters. They will make chirping and chittering sounds while gliding. When distressed, young fliers will make a high pitched rasping squeak, described as “tseets”, which is sometimes out of the range of human hearing. Southern flying squirrels are omnivores. Natural foods include lichens, nuts, bark, green tree buds, berries, moths, and slugs. The southern flying squirrel is considered the most carnivorous of all the tree squirrels. They will also eat nestling birds, bird’s eggs, carrion, baby mice and voles, and occasionally adult mice and shrews are killed and eaten by this beautiful little terror. They are more aggressive than their northern cousin.
Enemies of the southern flying squirrel include owls, bobcats, coyotes, foxes, skunks, weasels and snakes. Habitat destruction and domestic cats pose a serious threat to the flying squirrel. The average life span of wild fliers is 2 to 4 years. (reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
(Silvilagus Floridanus)
The eastern cottontail is the most widely spread species in the United States. They are found everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. The word “sylvilagus means “wood hare”. Their range extends from Canada to Central America. Cottontails are found in diverse habitats, including woodlands, fields, swamps, farmlands, hedge, prairies and urban yards. In Native American Indian legends, the rabbit is the trickster hero of the southwest tribes. The rabbit, in ancient Indian legends, possessed supernatural powers.
The cottontails home is called a form. It is a depression made by the rabbit by digging out or stomping down an oval shape. They do not maintain territories. Home ranges may overlap. The range of an adult male maybe 2 to 3 acres. The female’s territory is approximately 1 acre. The female is called a doe. She will line a form with her chest hair and grass when it is time to have her kits.
Cottontails are nocturnal. They rest in their form during the day. Their favorite foraging times are pre-dawn, early morning, pre-dusk and twilight. They are herbivores (plant eaters). They will eat grasses, sedges, leaves, flowers, stems, buds, berries and bark. During the winter months they will eat stems of goldenrod, dogwood, berries and tree bark. Cottontails also practice coprophagy, eating of their feces. Their digestive system requires a continuous flow of nutrition and roughage to remain healthy. Their metabolism is 3 times faster than a cat or dog. They do not require much water due to the vegetation they consume and the dew on the vegetation in the early morning hours.
Cottontails are normally very timid, however, they will fiercely defend their kits. Adult cottontails are 14 to 16 inches long and weigh about 3 pounds. They are capable of jumping 8 feet. The average life span is 2 years. Only 25% of cottontails survive their first year. If all of the doe’s brood survived and reproduced, at the end of 5 years, there would be 2.5 billion rabbits. In an area where there is a high number of predators, 85% of the rabbit population will die in one year. Mortality is also affected by weather. The form may be flooded during a storm and the may result in the death of an entire litter.
Rabbits sexually mature at 4 to 6 months. A doe may have 3 to 4 litters per year. The average litter size is 3 to 6. The doe returns to the nest twice a day to feed her kits. She will lay over the form and the kits will rise up to nurse. They lay on their backs and fill their stomachs quickly. Kits are born blind and hairless but in a short 3 weeks they will be weaned and eating on their own. By 4 weeks of age the kits will leave the nest for good.
Cottontails are a prey species. They are born knowing what they should do. When startled they will remain motionless for long periods of time or they will flee rapidly. (reprinted with permission from Wild at Heart)
(Castor Canadensis)
In 940 A.D., the earliest written record of beavers appeared as a set of laws declaring beavers and other fur bearing mammals as property of the king. Popular folklore, both in Europe and North America, held that beavers provide an indication of the severity of the winter. If the beavers built up a large food cache, the winter would be severe. In Old English, the word for beaver was “beofor” which origin came from a word meaning brown. The scientific name “castor”, is the word for beaver in Latin. It means musk. The North American genus of beavers is “Canadensis”, a word referring to the Canadian territory. Based on existing fossil evidence, beavers most likely existed 37 million years ago. Beavers similar to today’s modern beaver evolved around 10,000 years ago. It was larger than today’s beaver and is believed to have weighed more than 400 pounds and was up to 8 feet long.
The Lakota refer to Beaver spirit as Capa, the patron of work, food provisions and faithfulness. American Indians regard the beaver as a sacred animal. To harm a beaver was regarded as an omen of the visitation of evil upon their tribe. Indian legend told that man evolved from the beaver, which probably originated from the beaver’s construction skills.
A beaver’s body is built for its job as nature’s landscape designer. Its rounded body shape reduces water resistance. Its flat tail is relatively flexible and is used for counterbalance and as a rudder. The tail is almost hairless and is covered with tough, dark skin. The center of the tail is an extension of the spine. The tail is also used to slap the surface of the water as an alarm. Beavers will sit upright on their tail to groom with a special oil secreted from glands at the base of the tail, called castor glands. This oil will waterproof their fur. On land, the beaver usually drags its tail.
A beaver’s eyes are small and its vision is not acute. Beavers are near sighted, but it is believed that they are able to see color. Beavers rely more on their senses of smell and hearing to protect themselves from predators. They have an “extra eyelid”, called a nictating membrane, that protects the eyes under water.
A beaver’s nose has a special inner flap that seals out water when the beaver is submerged. Beavers have a special passage from their nose to their throat which connects to the upper lungs. This lets the beaver chew and breath through the its nose at the same time. Adult beavers can hold their breath under water for 15 minutes.
A beaver’s sense of smell is its most important sense, vital for finding food, identifying members of the colony, and detecting strangers and danger.
Beaver ears have inner flaps that seal out water when they are swimming. Their ears are small but their hearing is acute. They have oversized auditory canals, which allow them to pick up sounds and vibrations under water that may indicate danger.
A beaver’s teeth are well suited to their task of chewing through woody plant material. As with all rodents, the incisors are constantly growing. The incisors consist of two different materials. A hard orange enamel forms the cutting edge with a softer material beneath. Beavers sharpen their teeth by grinding them together.
Beavers are unique in the rodent family, as they are the only one to have five digits on each foot. The front feet are sensitive and dexterous. They can grasp branches or other objects with their paws because one their outside digits works like a thumb. The hind legs and feet are larger than the front. They are webbed, and not covered in fur. Both front and hind feet are clawed, and are used for digging. The hind feet have a double claw, which is used for grooming.
Male and female beavers are identical in looks and size. They have a thick coat of specialized hair and a layer of fat under the skin. The inner coat consists of extremely fine, soft hair that clings together because of tiny scales on the shafts. The long guard hairs are the only hair that molts. Fur color ranges from reddish brown to black.
Beavers weigh about a pound at birth. At one year, they will weigh between 10 and 15 pounds. By two years of age, they will weigh between 30 and 35 pounds. They do not reach maturity until the age of 4. Adults weights range from 45 to 60 pounds, with an occasional weight of 80 pounds. They live about 21 years. The oldest recorded age of a captive beaver was 50 years.
Beavers are monogamous, but will seek a new mate if theirs dies. A colony will consist of an adult pair, current offspring and the previous years offspring. The family is extremely close knit and very territorial. They are a matriarchal society. Beavers are generally nocturnal, and are most active in late afternoon into evening. Adult beaver are shy and quick to avoid danger.
Beavers live in fresh water. They prefer small lakes and slow moving streams. They typically swim at a speed of 2 mph, but are able to reach 6 mph if being chased. Adults are able to hold their breath for as long as fifteen minutes and can swim under water for up to one-half mile. A beaver’s heartbeat and circulation slow as it dives, a reflex it shares with whales, seals and porpoises.
Beavers have few vocalizations. They rely primarily on subtle body postures and scent to communicate with other beavers. The kits are the most vocal. Whimpers and whines are their most common vocalizations, used to solicit attention and made when eating, grooming and playing. Grunting, whistling and nasal noises are made between colony members. Kits will make a loud whine when not getting their way. Grinding teeth is sometimes used as a warning. They will hiss and grunt before fighting or when frightened. A tail slap is used to warn the colony of danger. The female uses this the most. Colony members will swim to deeper water at this signal.
Beavers eat between two and five pounds of woody material daily. Beavers are fond of aspen, wild willow, maple, alder, birch, sweet gum, cottonwood, sweet bay and loblolly. Southern favorites include: dogwood, tupelo gum, sweet bay, juniper, pecan, elm, hornbeam, chinaberry, box elder, holly and wax myrtle.
They will sometimes eat field corn, soybeans, and alfalfa. They will eat rice grasses, ferns, berries and mushrooms. They are especially fond of water lilies, bulrushes, cattails, duck weed, pond weed, goldenrod and arrowhead. They also feed on the green scum that forms on a pond.
Many species benefit from the beaver’s construction activities. A variety of water fowl use beaver habitat. Reptiles increase in number and diversity, and populations of mink and otter will take advantage of the beaver‘s watery creation. Dammed streams make the land more fertile and stimulate the growth of vegetation. Dams are effective for drought control, regulating the slow flow of water downstream and backed up water helps to replenish the ground water supply. Dams also, filter the water that passes through them making the water downstream cleaner. (copied with permission from Wild At Heart)